Sources of stress in captivity

Morgan and Tromborg comprehensively reviewed the environmental factors that stress captive animals, cataloguing sound, light, odour, temperature, substrate, restraint, human presence, predictability and control as potential stressors. They argued that many features of captivity are subtle, chronic and easily overlooked, and that animals' ability to predict and control events strongly modulates stress. The review provided a unifying framework connecting husbandry details to welfare outcomes across taxa. For felids it underscores why visual barriers, retreat options, quiet and controllable environments matter, and why noise from visitors, machinery or neighbouring predators can chronically elevate stress. It remains a foundational reference for diagnosing and mitigating welfare problems in captivity.