Research overview: tree caching by leopards to avoid kleptoparasitism

A survey of the leopard's distinctive habit of hauling kills, sometimes heavier than itself, into trees, and the ecological drivers behind it. Tree caching is most pronounced where lions and spotted hyenas are abundant, supporting the hypothesis that it primarily reduces kleptoparasitism by placing carcasses beyond the reach of these competitors, while also deterring scavengers and extending feeding time. This overview synthesizes evidence relating caching frequency to competitor density, prey size and habitat, and considers alternative explanations such as thermal and concealment benefits. It connects a remarkable behavior to the broader theme of how subordinate predators defend their kills. The topic exemplifies how interference competition with dominant carnivores shapes the foraging behavior and morphology of the leopard.